St. Albertus Magnus
Known as Albert the Great;
scientist, philosopher, and theologian, born c. 1206; died at
Cologne, 15 November 1280. He is called "the Great", and "Doctor Universalis" (Universal Doctor), in recognition of his extraordinary genius and extensive
knowledge, for he was proficient in every branch of learning cultivated in his day, and surpassed all his contemporaries, except perhaps
Roger Bacon (1214-94), in the
knowledge of
nature. Ulrich Engelbert, a contemporary, calls him the wonder and the
miracle of his age: "Vir in omni scientia adeo divinus, ut nostri temporis stupor et miraculum congrue vocari possit" (De summo bono, tr. III, iv).
Life
Albert, eldest son of the Count of Bollstädt, was born at Lauingen, Swabia, in the year 1205 or 1206, though many historians give it as 1193. Nothing certain is known of his primary or preparatory
education, which was received either under the paternal roof or in a
school of the neighbourhood. As a youth he was sent to pursue his studies at the
University of Padua; that city being chosen either because his uncle resided there, or because Padua was famous for its culture of the liberal arts, for which the young Swabian had a special predilection. The date of this journey to Padua cannot be accurately determined. In the year 1223 he joined the
Order of St. Dominic, being attracted by the preaching of Blessed Jordan of Saxony second Master General of the Order. Historians do not tell us whether Albert's studies were continued at
Padua, Bologna, Paris, or
Cologne. After completing his studies he taught
theology at
Hildesheim, Freiburg (Breisgau),
Ratisbon,
Strasburg, and
Cologne. He was in the
convent of
Cologne, interpreting
Peter Lombard's "Book of the Sentences", when, in 1245, he was ordered to repair to
Paris. There he received the Doctor's degree in the
university which, above all others, was celebrated as a
school of
theology. It was during this period of reaching at
Cologne and
Paris that he counted amongst his hearers
St. Thomas Aquinas, then a silent, thoughtful youth, whose genius he recognized and whose future greatness he foretold. The disciple accompanied his master to
Paris in 1245, and returned with him, in 1248, to the new
Studium Generale of
Cologne, in which Albert was appointed Regent, whilst Thomas became second professor and
Magister Studentium (Master of Students). In 1254 Albert was elected Provincial of his Order in
Germany. He journeyed to
Rome in 1256, to defend the
Mendicant Orders against the attacks of
William of St. Amour, whose book, "De novissimis temporum periculis", was condemned by
Pope Alexander IV, on 5 October, 1256. During his sojourn in
Rome Albert filled the office of
Master of the Sacred Palace (instituted in the time of
St. Dominic), and preached on the Gospel of St. John and the Canonical Epistles. He resigned the office of Provincial in 1257 in order to devote himself to study and to teaching. At the General Chapter of the
Dominicans held at Valenciennes in 1250, with
St. Thomas Aquinas and Peter of Tarentasia (afterwards
Pope Innocent V), he drew up rules for the direction of studies, and for determining the system of graduation, in the Order. In the year 1260 he was appointed
Bishop of
Ratisbon. Humbert de Romanis, Master General of the
Dominicans, being loath to lose the services of the great Master, endeavoured to prevent the
nomination, but was unsuccessful. Albert governed the diocese until 1262, when, upon the acceptance of his resignation, he
voluntarily resumed the
duties of a professor in the
Studium at
Cologne. In the year 1270 he sent a memoir to
Paris to aid
St. Thomas in combating
Siger de Brabant and the
Averroists. This was his second special treatise against the Arabian commentator, the first having been written in 1256, under the title "De Unitate Intellectus Contra Averroem". He was called by
Pope Gregory X to attend the Council of Lyons (1274) in the deliberations of which he took an active part. The announcement of the death of
St. Thomas at Fossa Nuova, as he was proceeding to the Council, was a heavy blow to Albert, and he declared that "The Light of the
Church" had been extinguished. It was but natural that he should have grown to
love his distinguished, saintly pupil, and it is said that ever afterwards he could not restrain his tears whenever the name of
St. Thomas was mentioned. Something of his old vigour and spirit returned in 1277 when it was announced that Stephen Tempier and others wished to condemn the writings of
St. Thomas, on the plea that they were too favourable to the unbelieving
philosophers, and he journeyed to
Paris to defend the memory of his disciple. Some time after 1278 (in which year he drew up his testament) he suffered a lapse of memory; his strong mind gradually became clouded; his body, weakened by vigils, austerities, and manifold labours, sank under the weight of years. He was
beatified by
Pope Gregory XV in 1622; his
feast is celebrated on the 15th of November. The Bishops of
Germany, assembled at
Fulda in September, 1872, sent to the
Holy See a petition for his
canonization; he was finally
canonized in 1931.
Works
Two editions of Albert's complete works (Opera Omnia) have been published; one at Lyons in 1651, in twenty-one folio volumes, edited by Father Peter Jammy, O.P., the other at
Paris (Louis Vivès), 1890-99, in thirty-eight quarto volumes, published under the direction of the Abbé Auguste Borgnet, of the diocese of Reims. Paul von Loë gives the chronology of Albert's writings the "Analecta Bollandiada" (De Vita et scriptis B. Alb. Mag., XIX, XX, and XXI). The logical order is given by P. Mandonnet, O.P., in Vacant's "Dictionnaire de théologie catholique". The following list indicates the subjects of the various treatises, the numbers referring to the volumes of Borgnet's edition.
Logic: seven treatises (I. 2).
Physical Sciences: "Physicorum" (3); "De Coelo et Mundo", "De Generatione et Corruptione". "Meteororum" (4); "Mineralium" (5); "De Natura locorum", " De passionibus aeris" (9).
Biological: "De vegetabilibus et plantis" (10) " De animalibus" (11-12); "De motibus animalium", "De nutrimento et nutribili", "De aetate", "De morte et vita", "De spiritu et respiratione" (9).
Psychological: "De Anima" (5); "De sensu et sensato", "De Memoria, et reminiscentia", "De somno et vigilia", "De natura et origine animae", "De intellectu et intelligibili", "De unitate intellectus" (9). The foregoing subjects, with the exception of Logic, are treated compendiously in the "Philosophia pauperum" (5).
Moral and Political: "Ethicorum" (7); "Politocorum (8).
Metaphysical: "Metaphysicorum" (6); "De causis et processu universitatis" (10).
Theological: "Commentary on the works of Denis the Aereopagite" (14); "Commentary on the Sentences of the Lombard" (25-30); "Summa Theologiae" (31-33); "Summa de creaturis" (34-35); "De sacramento Eucharistiae" (38); "Super evangelium missus est" (37).
Exegetical: "Commentaries on the Psalms and Prophets" (15-19); "Commentaries on the Gospels" (20-24); "On the Apocalypse" (38).
Sermons (13). The "Quindecim problemata contra Averroistas" was edited by Mandonnet in his "Siger de Brabant" (Freiburg, 1899). The authenticity of the following works is not established: "De apprehensione" (5); "Speculum astronomicum" (5); "De alchimia" (38); Scriptum super arborem Aristotelis" (38); "Paradisus animae" (37); "Liber de Adhaerendo Deo" (37); "De Laudibus B. Virginis" (36); "Biblia Mariana" (37).
Influence
The influence exerted by Albert on the scholars of his own day and on those of subsequent ages was naturally great. His fame is due in part to the fact that he was the forerunner, the guide and master of
St. Thomas Aquinas, but he was great in his own name, his claim to distinction being recognized by his contemporaries and by posterity. It is remarkable that thisfriar of the
Middle Ages, in the midst of his many
duties as a religious, as
provincial of his order, as
bishop and
papal legate, as preacher of a
crusade, and while making many laborious journeys from
Cologne to
Paris and
Rome, and frequent excursions into different parts of
Germany, should have been able to compose a veritable encyclopedia, containing scientific treatises on almost every subject, and displaying an insight into nature and a
knowledge of
theology which surprised his contemporaries and still excites the admiration of learned men in our own times. He was, in
truth, a
Doctor Universalis. Of him it in justly be said:
Nil tetigit quod non ornavit; and there is no exaggeration in the praises of the modern critic who wrote: "Whether we consider him as a
theologian or as a
philosopher, Albert was undoubtedly one of the most extraordinary men of his age; I might say, one of the most wonderful men of genius who appeared in past times" (Jourdain, Recherches Critiques). Philosophy, in the days of Albert, was a general
science embracing everything that could be known by the natural powers of the mind; physics, mathematics, and
metaphysics. In his writings we do not, it is
true, find the distinction between the
sciences and philosophy which recent usage makes. It will, however, be convenient to consider his skill in the experimental
sciences, his influence on scholastic philosophy, his
theology.
Albert and the experimental sciences
It is not surprising that Albert should have drawn upon the sources of information which his time afforded, and especially upon the scientific writings of
Aristotle. Yet he says: "The aim of natural
science is not simply to accept the statements [
narrata] of others, but to investigate the causes that are at work in nature" (De Miner., lib. II, tr. ii, i). In his treatise on plants he lays down the principle:
Experimentum solum certificat in talibus (Experiment is the only safe guide in such investigations). (De Veg., VI, tr. ii, i). Deeply versed as he was in
theology, he declares: "In studying nature we have not to inquire how
God the Creator may, as He freely wills, use His creatures to work
miracles and thereby show forth His power: we have rather to inquire what Nature with its immanent causes can naturally bring to pass" (De Coelo et Mundo, I, tr. iv, x). And though, in questions of natural
science, he would prefer
Aristotle to
St. Augustine (In 2, Sent. dist. 13, C art. 2), he does not hesitate to criticize the Greek
philosopher. "Whoever believes that
Aristotle was a god, must also believe that he never
erred. But if one believe that
Aristotle was a man, then doubtless he was liable to
error just as we are." (Physic. lib. VIII, tr. 1, xiv). In fact Albert devotes a lengthy chapter to what he calls "the
errors of
Aristotle" (Sum. Theol. P. II, tr. i, quaest. iv). In a word, his appreciation of
Aristotle is critical. He deserves credit not only for bringing the scientific teaching of the
Stagirite to the attention of
medieval scholars, but also for indicating the method and the spirit in which that teaching was to be received. Like his contemporary,
Roger Bacon (1214-94), Albert was an indefatigable student of nature, and applied himself energetically to the experimental
sciences with such remarkable success that he has been accused of neglecting the
sacred sciences (
Henry of Ghent, De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, II, x). Indeed, many legends have been circulated which attribute to him the power of a magician or sorcerer. Dr. Sighart (Albertus Magnus) examined these legends, and endeavoured to sift the
truth from
false or exaggerated stories. Other biographers content themselves with noting the fact that Albert's proficiency in the physical
sciences was the foundation on which the fables were constructed. The
truth lies between the two extremes. Albert was assiduous in cultivating the natural
sciences; he was an authority on physics, geography,
astronomy, mineralogy, chemistry (
alchimia), zoölogy, physiology, and even phrenology. On all these subjects his erudition was vast, and many of his observations are of permanent value. Humboldt pays a high tribute to his
knowledge of
physical geography (Cosmos, II, vi). Meyer* writes (Gesch. der Botanik): "No botanist who lived before Albert can be compared with him, unless it be Theophrastus, with whom he was not acquainted; and after him none has
painted nature in such living colours, or studied it so profoundly, until the time of Conrad, Gesner, and Cesalpini. All
honour, then, to the man who made such astonishing progress in the
science of nature as to find no one, I will not say to surpass, but even to equal him for the space of three centuries." The list of his published works is sufficient vindication from the charge of neglecting
theology and the
Sacred Scriptures. On the other hand, he expressed contempt for everything that savoured of enchantment or the art of magic: "Non approbo dictum Avicennae et Algazel de fascinatione, quia credo quod non nocet fascinatio, nec nocere potest ars magica, nec facit aliquid ex his quae timentur de talibus" (See Quétif, I, 167). That he did not admit the possibility of making gold by
alchemy or the use of the
philosopher's stone, is evident from his own words: "Art alone cannot produce a substantial form". (Non est probatum hoc quod educitur de plumbo esse aurum, eo quod sola ars non potest dare formam substantialem — De Mineral., lib. II, dist. 3).
Roger Bacon and Albert
proved to the world that the
Church is not opposed to the study of nature, that
faith and
science may go hand in hand; their lives and their writings emphasize the importance of experiment and investigation.
Bacon was indefatigable and bold in investigating; at times, too, his criticism was sharp. But of Albert he said: "Studiosissimus erat, et vidit infinita, et habuit expensum, et ideo multa potuit colligere in pelago auctorum infinito" (Opera, ed. Brewer, 327). Albert respected authority and traditions, was prudent in proposing the results of his investigations, and hence "contributed far more than
Bacon did to the advancement of
science in the thirteenth century" (Turner, Hist. of Phil.). His method of treating the
sciences was historical and critical. He gathered into one vast encyclopedia all that was known in his day, and then expressed his own opinions, principally in the form of commentaries on the works of
Aristotle. Sometimes, however, he hesitates, and does not express his own opinion, probably because he feared that his theories, which were "advanced" for those times, would excite surprise and occasion unfavourable comment. "Dicta peripateticorum, prout melius potui exposui: nec aliquis in eo potest deprehendere quid ego ipse sentiam in philosophia naturali" (DeAnimalibus, circa finem). In Augusta
Theodosia Drane's excellent work on "Christian Schools and Scholars" (419 sqq.) there are some interesting remarks on "a few scientific views of Albert, which show how much he owed to his own sagacious observation of natural phenomena, and how far he was in advance of his age. . . ." In speaking of the British Isles, he alluded to the commonly received
idea that another Island — Tile, or Thule — existed in the Western Ocean, uninhabitable by reason of its frightful clime, "but which", he says, has perhaps not yet been visited byman". Albert gives an elaborate demonstration of the sphericity of the earth; and it has been pointed out that his views on this subject led eventually to the discovery ofAmerica (cf. Mandonnet, in "Revue Thomiste", I, 1893; 46-64, 200-221).
Albert and Scholastic philosophy
More important than Albert's development of the physical
sciences was his influence on the study of
philosophy and
theology. He, more than any one of the great scholastics preceding
St. Thomas, gave to
Christian philosophy and
theology the form and method which, substantially, they retain to this day. In this respect he was the forerunner and master of
St. Thomas, who excelled him, however, in many qualities required in a perfect
Christian Doctor. In marking out the course which other followed, Albert shared the glory of being a pioneer with
Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), whose "Summa Theologiae" was the first written after all the works of
Aristotle had become generally known at
Paris. Their application of
Aristotelean methods and principles to the study of revealed
doctrine gave to the world the scholastic system which embodies the reconciliation of reason and Orthodox
faith. After the unorthodox
Averroes, Albert was the chief commentator on the works of,
Aristotle, whose writings he studied most assiduously, and whose principles he adopted, in order to systematize
theology, by which was meant a scientific exposition and defence of
Christian doctrine. The choice of
Aristotle as a master excited strong opposition. Jewish and Arabic commentaries on the works of the
Stagirite had given rise to so many
errors in the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries that for several years (1210-25) the study of
Aristotle's Physics and Metaphysics was forbidden at
Paris. Albert, however,
knew that
Averroes,
Abelard,
Amalric, and others had drawn
false doctrines from the writings of the Philosopher; he
knew, moreover, that it would have been impossible to stem the tide of enthusiasm in favour of
philosophical studies; and so he resolved to purify the works of
Aristotle from
Rationalism,
Averroism,
Pantheism, and other
errors, and thus compel
pagan philosophy to do service in the cause of
revealed truth. In this he followed the canon laid down by
St. Augustine (II De Doct. Christ., xl), who declared that
truths found in the writings of
pagan philosophers were to be adopted by the defenders of the
true faith, while their
erroneous opinions were to be abandoned, or explained in a
Christian sense. (See
St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., I.84.5.) All inferior (natural)
sciences should be the servants (
ancillae) of Theology, which is the superior and the mistress (ibid., 1 P., tr. 1, quaest. 6). Against the
rationalism of
Abelard and his followers Albert pointed out the distinction between
truths naturally knowable and mysteries (e.g.
the Trinity and the Incarnation) which cannot known without revelation (ibid., 1 P., tr. III, quaest. 13). We have seen that he wrote two treatises against
Averroism, which destroyed individual
immortality and individual responsibility, by teaching that there is but one rational
soul for all men.
Pantheism was refuted along with
Averroism when the
true doctrine on
Universals, the system known as moderate Realism, was accepted by the scholastic
philosophers. This
doctrine Albert based upon the Distinction of the universal
ante rem (an
idea or archetype in the mind of
God),
in re (existing or capable of existing in many
individuals), and
post rem (as a concept abstracted by the mind, and compared with the
individuals of which it can be predicated). "Universale duobus constituitur, natura, scilicet cui accidit universalitas, et respectu ad multa. qui complet illam in natura universalis" (Met., lib. V, tr. vi, cc. v, vi).
A.T. Drane (Mother Raphael, O.S.D.) gives a remarkable explanation of these doctrines (op. cit. 344-429). Though follower of
Aristotle, Albert did not neglect
Plato. "Scias quod non perficitur homo in philosophia, nisi scientia duarum philosophiarum, Aristotelis et Platonis (Met., lib. I, tr. v, c. xv). It is
erroneous to say that he was merely the "Ape" (
simius) of
Aristotle. In the
knowledge of Divine things
faith precedes the understanding of Divine
truth, authority precedes reason (I Sent., dist. II, a. 10); but in matters that can be naturally known a
philosopher should not hold an opinion which he is not prepared to defend by reason ibid., XII; Periherm., 1, I, tr. l, c. i).
Logic, according to Albert, was a preparation for philosophy teaching how we should use reason in order to pass from the known to the unknown: "Docens qualiter et per quae devenitur per notum ad ignoti notitiam" (De praedicabilibus, tr. I, c. iv).Philosophy is either contemplative or practical. Contemplative philosophy embraces physics, mathematics, and
metaphysics; practical (moral)
philosophy is monastic (for the individual), domestic (for the
family), or political (for the state, or
society). Excluding physics, now a special study, authors in our times still retain the old scholastic division of
philosophy into
logic,
metaphysics (general and special), and ethics.
Albert's theology
In theology Albert occupies a place between
Peter Lombard, the Master of the Sentences, and
St. Thomas Aquinas. In systematic order, in accuracy and clearness he surpasses the former, but is inferior to his own illustrious disciple. His "Summa Theologiae" marks an advance beyond the custom of his time in the
scientific order observed, in the elimination of useless questions, in the limitation of arguments and objections; there still remain, however, many of the
impedimenta, hindrances, or stumbling blocks, which
St. Thomas considered serious enough to call for a new manual of theology for the use of beginners —
ad eruditionem incipientium, as the
Angelic Doctor modestly remarks in the prologue of his
immortal "Summa". The mind of the
Doctor Universalis was so filled with the
knowledge of many things that he could not always adapt his expositions of the truth to the capacity of
novices in the
science of theology. He trained and directed a pupil who gave the world a concise, clear, and perfect scientific exposition and defence of
Christian Doctrine; under
God, therefore, we owe to Albertus Magnus the
"Summa Theologica" of
St. Thomas.
About this page
APA citation. Kennedy, D. (1907). St. Albertus Magnus. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved September 14, 2009 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01264a.htm
MLA citation. Kennedy, Daniel. "St. Albertus Magnus." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 14 Sept. 2009 .
Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Kevin Cawley.
Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. March 1, 1907. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.
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